Nematodes as model organisms for the investigation of neurodegenerative diseases, in particular parkinsons disease, uses and methods for the discovery of substances and genes which can used in the treatment of the above disease states and identification of a nematode gene

ABSTRACT

The invention relates to nematodes as model organisms for the investigation of neurodegenerative diseases, in particular, Parkinsons disease, uses and methods for the discovery of substances and genes which can be used in the treatment of the above disease states and identification of a nematode gene, From  C elegans , which is homologous to the human parkin gene associated with Parkinsons disease. The invention further relates to those nematodes which contain an aberrant or missing expression of at least one gene, preferably a parkin gene and/or a α-synucleine gene, which is connected with Parkinsons disease. According to the invention, the above organisms can be used for the identification and characterization of medicaments for the treatment of said disease states.

The invention relates to nematodes as model organisms for investigating neurodegenerative diseases, and, in particular, Parkinson's disease, which nematodes can be used for developing pharmaceuticals for treating neurodegenerative diseases, including those diseases in which plaque-like deposits (amyloidoses) occur, and, in particular, for treating Parkinson's disease.

The animal model according to the invention is based on a gene which is connected to the development of Parkinson's disease either being expressed in an aberrant manner, or not being expressed at all, in a nematode.

An animal model of this nature can also be used for clarifying the metabolic pathways and for identifying new genes which are involved in Parkinson's disease.

BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION

Transgenic animal models are already available, as valuable tools for clarifying disease processes and identifying and characterizing pharmaceuticals which have a prophylactic or therapeutic effect, for a variety of disease types. The prerequisite for developing such animal models is, in particular, knowledge of genes which are involved in the given disease processes.

Aside from Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease is the most well known disease in the neurodegenerative disease group. It is characterized by (1) a slowing down of all movements (bradykinesia), quiet and monotonous speech (akinesia or hypokinesia), absence of the physiological associated movements, a stooped posture, a small-step, partially shuffling gait, handwriting which becomes smaller as the writing continues, uncontrollable disturbances in movement, with a tendency to fall forward to the side or backward, (2) rigidity of the musculature (rigor), and (3) coarse resting tremor (trembling). Parkinson's disease is a disease which occurs relatively frequently and develops in approx. 1% of individuals aged over 60, in particular in men. The disease is caused by loss of dopamine in the striatum, resulting in the degeneration of neurons in the substantia nigra. The primary reason for loss of dopamine is not known (Dunnett and Björklund, 1999; Olanow and Tafton, 1999). Although the appearance of Parkinson's disease is sporadic as far as most patients are concerned, there is a small group of patients in whose families the disease occurs frequently. Molecular-genetic analyses performed in these families have led to the identification of several genes which, having been altered by mutations, are causatively involved in the onset of Parkinson's disease. One of these genes, which was discovered in 1998 by Nobuyoshi Shimizu, Yoshikuni Mizuno and their coworkers, has since then been designated Parkin or PARK2 (Kitada et al., 1998; Hattori et al., 1998). This gene was found to be mutated in several families in which several family members had developed autosomal recessive juvenile (beginning before the 40^(th) year of life) Parkinson's disease. The protein of the Parkin gene is characterized, inter alia, by an ubiquitin domain in the N terminus, two RING finger-like motifs in the C terminus and an IBR (in between ring fingers) domain.

Another gene which has also been identified as being causatively involved in Parkinson's disease is the α-synuclein gene (Polymeropoulos et al., 1997). α-Synuclein is found, in particular, in the fibrillary, intracytoplasmic inclusions (Lewy bodies) which appear in association with Parkinson's disease. Aside from the presynaptic protein (α-synuclein, a large number of proteins, such as ubiquitin and neurofilament are also represented in the Lewy bodies. Mutations (A53T and A30P) in the α-synuclein gene on human chromosome 4q21-q22 lead to an autosomally dominant form of Parkinson's disease (Polymeropoulos et al., 1997; Kruger et al., 1998). How these mutations are able to induce Parkinson's disease has still not been elucidated. The dominant inheritance pattern and the fact that α-synuclein is present in Lewy bodies in fibrillary aggregations whose formation can be accelerated by the two mutations points to toxicity as the mechanism (toxic gain of function). A recent study has identified a sequence of 12 amino acids in the middle of α-synuclein which is responsible for the aggregation in vitro and which is absent from the very similar protein β-synuclein, which is nonaggregating (Giasson et al., 2000). α-Synuclein has thus far only been identified in vertebrates, with threonine, instead of alanine, as is the case in humans, being found in position 53 of the amino acid sequence in all the species known to date (Clayton and George, 1998).

Transgenic animal models which express different variants of human α-synuclein have thus far been established in the mouse and in Drosophila. The neuronal expression of α-synuclein in the mouse leads to a progressive accumulation of α-synuclein in intraneuronal inclusions, which inclusions are not, however, of a fibrillary nature (Masliah et al., 2000). By contrast, transgenic flies, which express α-synuclein panneuronally, exhibit fibrillary inclusions, which resemble the Lewy bodies, a loss of dopaminergic neurons and impairment of locomotory functions (Feany and Bender, 2000). In this connection, there were no significant differences in the expression of the individual forms of α-synuclein (wt, A53T and A30P).

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

As compared with the animal models for Parkinson's disease which have already been published, the advantages of a nematode model, in particular of the C. elegans model, are, in particular, its suitability for a high-throughput method (high-throughput screening) (HTS), the possibility of being able to carry out a genetic analysis more rapidly as a result of a shorter generation time (2-3 days, as compared with weeks in the case of Drosophila) and detailed knowledge of the molecular and functional properties of the nervous system in C. elegans. Since C. elegans can be maintained in microtiter plates, it is possible to use this test system to test out 10,000 or more substances by HTS, on the living worm, in a short period of time.

The progressive sequencing of different genomes has shown that many human genes have homologs in other organisms. More than two thirds of all the human disease-associated genes known thus far have been demonstrated to be also present in the C. elegans genome. In several cases, it has been shown experimentally that these genes are functionally interchangeable. These features possessed in common demonstrate that the functions of these genes are essential for fundamental biological processes. The common features make it possible to establish these model systems for investigating human gene functions, for identifying new target genes and for developing drugs.

The present application describes, inter alia, a Parkin-encoding gene (FIG. 3; SEQ ID NO:1), which is derived from C. elegans and which was previously unknown, and its gene product (SEQ ID NO:2), which gene was found by analyzing C. elegans DNA sequences, and comparing them with the known sequence of the human Parkin gene, using bioinformatic methods.

Having knowledge of this novel gene, and concomitantly using other genes known to be connected with Parkinson's disease, such as the α-synuclein gene, it was possible to develop a nematode model which can be used to analyze neurodegenerative diseases genetically, an approach which can be used for selectively developing novel pharmaceuticals for preventing and/or treating diseases of this nature and, in particular, for preventing and/or treating Parkinson's disease and for identifying other potential diseases of this nature and, in particular, genes which elicit Parkinson's disease.

Following identification of the Parkin gene in C. elegans, strains of this organism in which the C. elegans Parkin gene was wholly or partially deleted (what are termed Parkin knock-out mutants) were isolated in the applicant's laboratory (see experimental section). These strains exhibited a phenotype which was different from that of the wild type.

This phenotype was subjected to a variety of complementation experiments. In these experiments, a part of the cosmid which contains the C. elegans Parkin gene and its promoter, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, the human Parkin gene, were inserted into the C. elegans Parkin knock-out strain in order to offset the phenotype of the inactivated C. elegans Parkin gene. These experiments verified, on the one hand, that the phenotype was indeed the consequence of inactivating the C. elegans Parkin gene and, on the other hand, that the C. elegans gene and the human disease-associated gene are functionally interchangeable.

Since mutations in, and deletions of, quite different regions of the Parkin gene lead to hereditary Parkinson's disease in humans, it can be assumed that expression of the disease must result from a functional loss of the Parkin gene product. We have therefore developed the C. elegans Parkin knock-out strains as model systems for testing pharmacologically active substances. In this connection, pharamacologically active substances are those which suppress the phenotype, i.e. it is consequently possible to identify substances which suppress the phenotype (by, for example, these substances improving the motility of the worm).

It is not always possible to use the disease-relevant gene product itself as the therapeutic target structure for the drug development. The possibility then presents itself of investigating the pertinent metabolic pathway, and the gene products involved, for their suitability as target structures in an in vivo model. The previously mentioned C. elegans Parkin knock-out worm strains are also outstandingly suitable for identifying new genes which are involved in the Parkin metabolic pathway. In these experiments, the knock-out worm strains are subjected to a mutagenesis and animals which no longer exhibit an altered phenotype, and which consequently move normally once again, are selected out. These animals are then subjected to genetic mapping in order to identify the gene which, having been mutated, leads to the Parkin knock-out phenotype being suppressed. This target gene may then possibly in turn be suitable for developing a drug.

Aside from the model based on the Parkin gene, a transgenic nematode model in which a human α-synuclein gene is expressed in C. elegans under the control of specific C. elegans promoters was also developed. This model also reproduces important features of Parkinson's disease and can consequently also be used as a tool for developing novel medicines for, treating this disease.

Expression of the human α-synuclein gene, or of derivatives of the human α-synuclein gene, in particular of mutants which induce hereditary forms of Parkinson's disease in humans, such as the α-synuclein mutant A53T, in which the amino acid alanine at position 53 is replaced with threonine, in C. elegans animals led, for example, to a morphological change in the head region (anterior third of the body) and/or tail region and/or in/on the vulva (posterior third of the body) of the animals, which change is characterized by a swelling (increase in the diameter of the animals) due to a functional incapacity or functional reduction in the activity of muscles and neurons. Expression of α-synuclein or its derivatives in C. elegans presumably modifies the function of genes, in particular those which are expressed in muscles and neurons.

Under a first aspect, therefore, the invention relates to a nemtatode which exhibits an aberrant or nonexistent expression of a gene which is connected with Parkinson's disease, in particular a Parkin gene and/or an α-synuclein gene. This nematode can be used as a model organism for neurodegenerative diseases, including those in which plaque-like deposits appear in the nervous system (amyloidoses), and, in particular, for Parkinson's disease.

In this connection, the aberrant or nonexistent expression can relate, for example, to the Parkin gene derived from C. elegans, to the human Parkin gene or to any homologous Parkin gene from another organism, or to an α-synuclein gene from any organism, such as a human α-synuclein gene.

In particular, the aberrant or nonexistent expression of the Parkin gene can be caused by this gene having been completely or partially deleted or by this gene having been temporarily inactivated, for example using the RNA interference (RNAi) technique which is known in the prior art.

Under another particular aspect, the nematode of the invention exhibits a phenotype which is associated with the aberrant or nonexistent expression of the Parkin gene and/or the α-synuclein gene.

The phenotype which is associated with the aberrant or nonexistent expression of the Parkin gene can, for example, be a defect in chemotaxis, a defect in egglaying, an extended period of development, a decreased number of descendants, problems in coordination, a defect in defacation, retarded locomotion or a reduced body length.

The phenotype which is associated with aberrant or nonexistent expression of the α-synuclein gene can, for example, be a defect in egglaying, a defect in the formation of the vulva, deposits of α-synuclein, an extended period of development or a decreased number of descendants.

The different phenotypes are described in further detail in the experimental section.

In addition, the invention encompasses the use of a nematode of the invention as a model organism, in particular

-   -   for investigating the mechanisms involved in the development,         cause and/or propagation of neurodegenerative diseases,         including those in which plaque-like deposits (amyloidoses)         appear in the nervous system, and, in particular, Parkinson's         disease,     -   for identifying and/or characterizing pharmaceuticals and genes         for preventing or treating neurodegenerative diseases, including         those in which plaque-like deposits (amyloidoses) appear in the         nervous system, and, in particular, Parkinson's disease, and     -   for identifying and/or characterizing active compounds and genes         which are able to modify the effect of pharmaceuticals which are         used for preventing or treating neurodegenerative diseases,         including those in which plaque-like deposits (amyloidoses)         appear in the nervous system, and, in particular, Parkinson's         disease.

Under other aspects, the invention encompasses methods for investigating the efficacy of a substance or a gene in the treatment and/or prevention of such diseases and methods for investigating the suitability of a substance or a gene for modifying the effect of a pharmaceutical in the treatment and/or prevention of such diseases, which methods use the nematodes of the invention.

In addition, the invention also extends to the substances and genes which are identified by the methods according to the invention and which can be used for producing pharmaceuticals for preventing and/or treating such diseases and as lead substances and lead genes, respectively, for developing substances and genes, respectively, which are derived therefrom and which are active in the treatment and/or prevention of such diseases, or of substances and genes, respectively, which are suitable for modifying the effect of a pharmaceutical in the treatment and/or prevention of such diseases.

In this connection, the development of novel pharmaceuticals for treating Parkinson's disease or other neurodegenerative diseases, including those which are characterized by the deposition of protein aggregates in the nervous system and are, in particular, induced or intensified by such a deposition, can also encompass the investigation of protein-mediated interactions or the investigation of factors which are affected by these interactions.

In this connection, a pharmaceutical for treating such diseases should, in particular, be suitable for curing the disease, for alleviating individual symptoms, several symptoms or all the symptoms of the disease, or for delaying the progress of the disease.

A prophylactic treatment can be aimed at complete protection against the disease developing or simply aimed at delaying the onset of the disease.

Finally, the invention relates to an isolated nucleic acid molecule which encodes the C. elegans Parkin gene, to homologs and fragments of this molecule, and to a polypeptide or protein which is encoded by such a nucleic acid molecule.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

More specifically, the invention is based on the finding that genes of the Parkin gene family and genes of the α-synuclein gene family are biochemically or genetically connected with the development, propagation or intensification of neurodegenerative diseases, including those in which plaque-like deposits appear in the nervous system (amyloidoses), i.e. those which are induced or intensified by the deposition of protein aggregates in the nervous system, and, in particular, Parkinson's disease. Accordingly, the invention is directed, in particular, to nematodes for use as model organisms for neurodegenerative diseases, including those in which plaque-like deposits appear in the nervous system, which nematodes exhibit an aberrant or nonexistent expression of a Parkin gene and/or an α-synuclein gene.

However, the genes which come into consideration in this regard also comprise homologous genes from other organisms. Thus, a sequence comparison based on the C. elegans Parkin gene showed that homologous genes were present, for example, in the following organisms:

D. melanogaster Parkin (27% identical, 38% similar)

H. sapiens: PARK2 (Parkin) (27% identical, 36% similar)

M. musculus: Parkin (25% identical, 36% similar)

The above genes can consequently also be introduced into the model organism.

In connection with the invention, an aberrant gene expression is understood as being, in particular, at least one of the following:

-   -   an increased gene expression which leads to the generation of a         quantity of transcription product and/or translation product of         the gene concerned which is increased as compared with the         wild-type gene,     -   a decreased gene expression which leads to the generation of a         quantity of transcription product and/or translation product of         the gene concerned which is decreased as compared with the         wild-type gene,     -   an expression of a mutated gene, and/or     -   an expression of a gene which is homologous or heterologous with         respect to the organism.

In this connection, the terms “aberrant or nonexistent expression” are always to be understood in relation to an organism which is otherwise genetically equivalent, i.e. identical, but which exhibits a wild-type character with regard to this expression. The reference organism which is enlisted for the comparison can consequently be, for example, a pure wild-type organism which is found in nature, an organism from a line which has been obtained by conventional breeding methods, such as by crossing, or a transgenic organism which has already been modified by genetic mutation, i.e. with regard to genes of another type, and which, where appropriate, can additionally have been subjected to crossing. The only thing which is crucial is that the reference organism or parent organism exhibits a wild-type character with regard to the gene expression which is relevant in the present case.

The gene which is to be expressed aberrantly within the context of the invention can be a gene which is homologous or heterologous with respect to the target organism or be derived by mutation from a gene which is homologous or heterologous with respect to the target organism.

The gene which is to be expressed aberrantly can be present in the target organism

-   -   in the complete state, i.e. together with all the appurtenant         regulatory regions in addition to the coding region(s),     -   together with only a part of the regulatory regions in addition         to the coding region(s), or     -   solely in the form of the coding regions, i.e. in combination         with regulatory regions which are heterologous with respect to         the gene.

In this connection, the coding regions can constitute the entirety of the coding regions of the relevant gene, or parts of these coding regions, which parts, however, at least guarantee the functionality, of the gene or the gene product, which is essential in connection with said diseases. The coding regions can also be present in the form of a fused gene, i.e. coding regions which are fused to a different protein, for example a marker protein.

Thus, within the context of the invention, the aberrant gene expression can constitute or encompass the expression of a gene which is native but heterologous with respect to the target organism.

As a rule, it will be possible to attribute increased or decreased gene expression to (a) mutation(s) in the promoter region and/or other regulatory regions, e.g. enhancer sequences, matrix/scaffold attachment regions, etc., of the relevant gene which is homologous or heterologous with respect to the target organism or to a coupling of the coding gene regions to a stronger or weaker promoter which is heterologous with respect to the coding gene region. An increased gene expression can also be brought about by the additional, and suitable, incorporation of expression-augmenting elements, such as enhancer sequences and matrix/scaffold attachment regions, into the genes which are to be expressed aberrantly.

When a mutated gene product is expressed, one or more mutation(s) is/are present, where appropriate in addition to mutations in regulatory regions, in the coding region of the gene which is homologous or heterologous with respect to the target organism, which mutation(s) lead(s) to a change in the amino acid sequence of the translated gene product as compared with the amino acid sequence of the native gene product.

In this connection, the simultaneous presence of mutations in regions regulating gene expression and in coding regions should naturally also be included. For example, it is possible to overexpress a mutated protein in a target organism in this way.

In this connection, and depending on the individual case, the aberrant gene expression can, where appropriate, include the deletion of one or more native genes in the target organism. For example, when expressing a native or mutated heterologous gene in the target organism, it could be helpful, in individual cases, to delete the homologous gene, having the same function, in the target organism. It could be appropriate to do the same in individual cases when expressing a mutated homologous gene in a target organism.

Furthermore, preference may be given, where appropriate, to regulating the aberrant gene expression in a tissue-specific manner. For this, the genes which are to be expressed aberrantly are as a rule attached to promoter sequences which permit tissue-specific or cell-specific expression, for example in the nervous system, in particular in neurons or special neuron cell types. However, enhancer sequences which act in a tissue-specific manner are also known, which sequences are able, when suitably incorporated into a gene to be expressed, to bring about a tissue-specific increase in the expression. Tissue-specific or cell-specific promoters and enhancers of this nature are known to specialists (see, for example, Baumeister et al., 1996; Way & Chalfie, 1989; and Hobert et al., 1997).

In addition or alternatively, it is possible, by means of coupling the relevant gene to an inducible promoter, to obtain an expression, of the relevant gene in a target organism, which can be induced by chemical stimuli or physical stimuli (e.g. temperature). In this case, it is also possible to conceive of using development-specific promoters. In both cases, it is consequently possible to specify the beginning of the expression of the relevant gene, and consequently, in particular, the appearance of phenotypes which are connected to this gene expression, at a time which can be freely selected by the user (inducible promoter) or which can be regulated by the choice of the (development-specific) promoter. In these cases, it is accordingly possible to initially allow the development of the target organism to proceed for a certain period of time unaffected by the expression of the relevant gene.

The aberrant gene expression will frequently encompass the introduction of the gene, which is to be expressed aberrantly and which is in the form of a transgene which, as explained, may be homologous or heterologous with respect to the target organism, into cells of the target organism using a construct which comprises the transgene. In the case of a transgene which is homologous with respect to the target organism, the transgene is located, after having been introduced, in a genetic environment which is different from that of the corresponding gene which is naturally present in the target organism. In this connection, the transgene can, after having been introduced into the cells, be present extrachromosomally in these cells and be expressed from this extrachromosomal construct. Alternatively, after having been introduced into the cell, the transgene is integrated into the genome of the cell and expressed as such.

A large number of standard techniques, which are, in particular, especially suited for the organism cells employed, are available to the skilled person for transforming or transfecting organism cells with constructs which contain the relevant transgenes and, more generally, for preparing the organisms according to the invention. Protocols for these standard techniques can be readily found in the literature and there will therefore be no further comments in this connection.

For example, a method for generating a nematode according to the invention which is employed as a model organism can comprise introducing an expression construct, which contains a desired transgene or a desired nucleic acid sequence, into an hermaphrodite nematode. This can be effected, for example, by means of microinjection. After descendants have hatched from the eggs of the nematode, they are allowed to develop, after which at least one descendant, which contains the desired transgene or the desired nucleic acid under the control of regulatory sequences which permit an expression which is, where appropriate, tissue-specific or cell-specific, is identified. For the purpose of this identification, the expressed construct which is used for the transfection can additionally contain a marker gene which encodes a readily detectable marker protein, where appropriate as a fusion protein.

The nematode descendant which has been identified in this way can then, if desired or necessary, be subjected, where appropriate, to a further breeding procedure, for example crossing with other nematodes which, for example, are expressing other interesting transgenes, in order to produce lines which exhibit various desired properties in addition to the aberrant or nonexistent gene expression discussed above.

If, in an organism according to the invention, it is desired to render the expression of a native gene nonexistent, several possibilities, such as a selective knock-out mutation, which is described in more detail in the experimental section, or the use of a specific antisense or sense strategy, and a selective mutagenesis, are also available for this purpose.

Another possibility of inactivating a gene is that of using the RNA interference technique, which was established in C. elegans about two years ago. In this technique, double-stranded RNA derived from the gene to be analyzed is introduced into the worm. This RNA is evidently cut into relatively small fragments and can subsequently become distributed throughout the animal. The RNA fragments interact, in each cell, with the corresponding messenger RNA, resulting in the transcript being broken down specifically (Zamore et al., 2000). This process leads to a loss-of-function mutation having a phenotype which, over the period of a generation, comes to very closely resemble that arising from a deletion of this gene.

There are two different possibilities for transferring the double-stranded RNA into the worm. The first possibility is that of microinjection, with the single-stranded RNA being prepared by in vitro transcription. Sense and antisense RNA are subsequently hybridized to each other, giving rise to the double-stranded form. This is injected once into the worm and the F1 descendants of the animal are analyzed.

The second possibility is that of feeding, with the RNA being synthesized in vivo in a suitable bacterial strain. As a result of the worms growing on these feed bacteria, the RNA passes from the intestinal tract into the remaining cells, leading to the breakdown of the corresponding mRNA which has already been described above. The advantage of this approach is that the RNA is supplied continuously and the interfering effect therefore lasts longer.

In a special embodiment of the invention, more than one of the abovementioned genes is expressed aberrantly in an organism according to the invention. In addition to this, the organism can also express a Parkin gene, or a gene which is homologous to it, as a transgene and/or express an α-synuclein gene, or a gene which is homologous to it, as a transgene.

The organisms according to the invention are nematodes, in particular nematodes of the genus Caenorhabditis, for example C. elegans, C. vulgaris or C. briggsae.

All of the transgenic animals which are defined within the context of this application can be used as model organisms for neurodegenerative diseases in which, in particular, the members of the α-synuclein gene family and/or the genes of the Parkin gene family are involved, and, in particular, for selectively developing novel drugs for preventing and/or treating diseases of this nature.

In this connection, it is possible to use pharmaceutical candidate substances, in particular small molecules, to test whether the phenotype observed in the given particular case is reduced or augmented by the action of such substances. For this reason, the transgenic animals, in particular C. elegans, and, for example, those which are expressing α-synuclein, are suitable for testing novel pharmacological active compounds.

The use of nematodes has numerous advantages, particularly for identifying and characterizing pharmaceuticals and active compounds. Nematodes according to the invention exhibit, in particular, symptoms which can be observed in a quite equivalent manner in human patients who are suffering from neurodegenerative diseases, including those in which plaque-like deposits appear in the nervous system, and, in particular, those patients who are suffering from Parkinson's disease. In this connection, it is possible to readily observe or determine the symptoms in nematodes, without any great input and only a short time after the nematodes have hatched, for example only a few days after hatching. In addition to this, nematodes have short generation times, as compared to other organisms, and there is the possibility of genetically manipulating large numbers of animals and correspondingly generating large numbers of transgenic animals. There are no problems in producing relatively large numbers of identical transgenic descendants from one nematode according to the invention, which means that sufficient organisms can be provided even for the HTS of large numbers of pharmaceutical candidates or of whole substance libraries. Substance libraries of this nature can be libraries of synthetically produced substances or libraries of natural products.

When nematodes are used, mass screening of this nature can, for example, be conveniently performed in microtiter plates, with it being possible to provide one well, or, in the case of parallel samples, correspondingly more wells, available for each pharmaceutical candidate compound or active substance candidate compound.

In a method for investigating the efficacy of a substance in treating and/or preventing neurodegenerative diseases, it is accordingly possible, for example, for organisms according to the invention to be exposed to the substance and for changes which may arise in the phenotype, which is associated with the aberrant or nonexistent expression of the at least one gene connected to diseases of this nature, as has been discussed above, to be determined.

In this connection, an attenuation of the observed phenotype, an abolition of the observed phenotype or a retardation in the deterioration of the observed phenotype with time which is otherwise observed in the absence of the pharmaceutical treatment, indicates that the investigated substance is effective as a pharmaceutical in the treatment and/or prevention of such diseases. A deterioration in the observed phenotype over and above the extent observed in the absence of pharmaceutical treatment, or an acceleration of the deterioration which is normally observed in the absence of pharmaceutical treatment, indicates that the investigated substance is contraindicated in connection with these diseases.

In order to confirm the results which have been obtained, it will always be appropriate to observe control organisms which are not exposed to the substance to be investigated. Since, as a rule, a deterioration in the phenotype, i.e. in the symptoms which are observed in connection with the aberrant or nonexistent expression of the at least one gene connected with diseases of this nature, will be observed over time in the target organisms, it will as a rule be necessary, in comparative investigations (comparative investigations using different pharmaceutical candidate substances or comparative investigations with and without a pharmaceutical candidate substance), to use organisms which are equivalent to each other and which are of the same age, for example nematodes of the same line which have, hatched at the same point in time.

In a method for investigating the suitability of a substance for modifying the effect of a pharmaceutical in the treatment and/or prevention of neurodegenerative diseases, including those in which plaque-like deposits appear in the nervous system, it may, for example, be necessary to perform the following steps:

-   -   to expose an organism according to the invention to the         pharmaceutical and to determine the changes, which arise as a         result of the effect of the pharmaceutical, in the phenotype         which is associated with the aberrant or nonexistent expression         of the at least one gene connected to such diseases, as have         been discussed above,     -   to expose at least one further specimen of the organism of the         type used in the preceding step to the pharmaceutical in the         presence of the substance and to compare any changes which may         arise in the phenotype with the changes, which arise due to the         effect of the pharmaceutical on its own, in the phenotype which         is associated with the aberrant or nonexistent expression of the         at least one gene connected to such diseases, as have been         discussed above.

The substance to be investigated can be added before, at the same time as, or after the addition of the pharmaceutical, which is in each case employed, to the assay system containing the organism according to the invention. It is also possible for the substance and the pharmaceutical to be previously incubated together before being added to the assay system.

In this connection, an attenuation of the observed phenotype which is augmented in the presence of the substance, an abolition of the observed phenotype which newly occurs in the presence of the substance, or a chronological retardation, which is stronger in the presence of the substance, of the changes in the observed phenotype which are otherwise observed in the presence of the pharmaceutical without any addition of the substance, indicates that the investigated substance is active as an effect-modifying agent which augments the effect of the pharmaceutical, used in the assay, in the treatment and/or prevention of such diseases (=agonistic effect). A deterioration, which is observed in the presence of the substance, of the observed phenotype as compared with the phenotype which is observed in the presence of the pharmaceutical on its own, a complete abolition of the effect of the pharmaceutical, or a more minor retardation of the deterioration which is normally observed despite the presence of the pharmaceutical, show that the investigated substance is contraindicated (=antagonistic effect) in such diseases.

That which has been said in the preceding paragraphs also applies, in a corresponding manner, with regard to the reference organisms which are to be employed for comparative purposes, including organisms which are not treated with pharmaceutical and substance and organisms which are only treated with the substance, i.e. which are not treated with the pharmaceutical.

The identification or characterization of pharmaceuticals and modifying substances which is effected using the organisms and methods according to the invention can also be effected using substance mixtures, e.g. natural product extracts or fermentation broths, with the substance mixture initially being tested and, when activity has been demonstrated, the mixture then being separated or fractionated into individual substances, where appropriate stepwise, in the direction of continually increasing purity, in order to finally arrive at the pure active compound or the pure modifying substance. Accordingly, during the course of the separation or fractionation, the method according to the invention will as a rule be repeated as often as required for identifying the fraction which in each case contains the active compound or the modifying substance.

The definitions of the methods according to the invention which are presented should consequently also encompass substances which are present in the form of a mixture with other compounds.

The invention also extends to substances which are effective in the treatment and/or prevention of neurodegenerative diseases, including those in which plaque-like deposits appear in the nervous system, and substances which are suitable for modifying the effect of a pharmaceutical in the treatment and/or prevention of such diseases, which substances have been identified using one of the methods according to the invention which have just been explained. It is possible to use these substances to produce a variety of pharmaceuticals.

The invention also extends to the use of a substance according to the invention as a lead substance for developing substances which are derived from it and which are effective in the treatment and/or prevention of neurodegenerative diseases, including those in which plaque-like deposits appear in the nervous system, or substances which are suitable for modifying the effect of a pharmaceutical in the treatment and/or prevention of such diseases.

Proceeding from an appropriate lead substance, the derived substances can be obtained by means of one or more of the methods of chemical derivatization which the skilled person customarily employs in this connection. Only by way of example, a salt formation, an esterification, an etherification or an amide formation may be mentioned in the case of a lead substance being present in the form of an organic acid, or the formation of a salt with an organic or inorganic acid may be mentioned in the case of a lead substance which is present in the form of an amine. Hydroxyl groups which are present on the lead substance can be used, for example, for etherification or customary reactions of a different nature. The invention also encompasses any types of formation of addition compounds and solvates and of substitutions which can be performed on the backbone chain of a lead substance, for example on an aromatic ring structure which is present in this chain. Substitutions of hydrogen atoms, halogen atoms, hydroxyl groups, amine groups, carboxylic acid groups or alkyl groups, or substitutions by such groups or atoms, can, for example, be performed.

Under another aspect, the invention furthermore relates to the use of the organisms, according to the invention,

-   -   for identifying and/or characterizing other genes which are         connected with the mechanisms involved in the genesis, the         course and/or the propagation of neurodegenerative diseases,         including those in which plaque-like deposits appear in the         nervous system, in particular Parkinson's disease;     -   for identifying and/or characterizing genes which, in the         mutated or unmutated state, are active in the prevention or         treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, including those in         which plaque-like deposits appear in the nervous system, in         particular Parkinson's disease, and     -   for identifying and/or characterizing genes which, in the         mutated or unmutated state, are able to modify the effect of         pharmaceuticals and/or genes which are employed for the         prevention or treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, including         those in which plaque-like deposits appear in the nervous         system, in particular Parkinson's disease.

In analogy with the search for pharmaceuticals which suppress or augment a particular phenotype which is associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's disease, the nematodes according to the invention, e.g. C. elegans, can also be used for identifying other genes which have the same function. A transgenic strain according to the invention, or a strain which is mutant in one of the candidate genes exemplified above, is used for this purpose. In a following step, the phenotype which is induced by the transgene or the mutation is manipulated by means of (a) additional mutation(s) in (an) other gene(s). This is effected, as a rule, by means of undirected mutagenesis, for example by means of using mutagenizing chemicals (e.g. MMS, methyl methanesulfonate; EMS, ethyl methanesulfonate; NNG, N-methyl-N′-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine) or irradiation.

In this way, it is possible to find additional mutations which offset or amplify the phenotype (suppressor or enhancer mutants). The genes which are affected are candidates for other genes in the same signal pathway or candidates for genes in parallel signal pathways. Each of these genes which have been newly found in this way therefore constitutes another target gene for a pharmacological intervention, for example for identifying or developing pharmaceuticals (for example possessing activity toward a product of the gene in question) or for developing genetic therapeutic agents.

Alongside the pharmacological aspect, this aspect constitutes one of the most important aspects of the animal models according to the invention and, in particular, of the C. elegans animal model (headword: “pathway dissection”, identification of the genetic components of a signal pathway).

Accordingly, the invention also encompasses a method for identifying and/or characterizing genes which, in the mutated or unmutated state, are active in the prevention or treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, including those in which plaque-like deposits appear in the nervous system, in particular Parkinson's disease, which method comprises the following steps,

-   -   performing an undirected mutagenesis on organisms according to         the invention,     -   determining any changes in the phenotype, which is associated         with the aberrant or nonexistent expression of the at least one         gene connected with such diseases, as have been exemplified         above, which it may be possible to observe in the organisms         resulting from the mutagenesis, as compared with the starting         organisms which were used for the undirected mutagenesis, and     -   identifying the gene(s) which, as a consequence of its (their)         mutation, is/are responsible for the changes in the phenotype         which were observed in the preceding step.

The invention also relates to a method for identifying and/or characterizing genes which are able, in the mutated or unmutated state, to modify the effect of pharmaceuticals and/or genes which are used for the prevention or treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, including those in which plaque-like deposits appear in the nervous system, in particular Parkinson's disease, which method comprises the steps of:

-   -   performing an undirected mutagenesis on organisms according to         the invention,     -   generating descendants of identical type from the organisms         resulting from the mutagenesis,     -   determining, in the descendants which are in each case         identical, a phenotype which may possibly be present and which         is associated with the aberrant or nonexistent expression of the         at least one gene connected to such diseases, as have been         exemplified above,     -   comparing the phenotype which was determined in the descendants         in the preceding step with the corresponding phenotype of the         starting organisms according to the invention,     -   determining, in the descendants which are in each case identical         and which exhibit the same phenotype as the starting organisms,         changes in the phenotype, which are associated with the aberrant         or nonexistent expression of the at least one gene connected to         such diseases, as have been exemplified above, in the presence         of the pharmaceutical to be investigated or when the gene to be         investigated is expressed, and     -   comparing the changes which have been determined in the         phenotype with the changes in the phenotype of the starting         organisms in the presence of the pharmaceutical to be         investigated or when the gene to be investigated is expressed,         in order to ascertain any differences in the phenotype change         which may possibly be occurring, and     -   identifying the gene(s) which, as a consequence of its (their)         mutation, is/are responsible for the differences in the         phenotype changes which may possibly have been observed in the         preceding step.

The genes in question can be identified in a variety of ways known to skilled persons in this field, for example by means of recombination analysis. If the sought-after gene can be restricted to a limited number of candidate genes, it is also possible, for example, to carry out a directed mutation of corresponding starting organisms and to determine the phenotype changes or differences in phenotype change resulting therefrom in order to ascertain whether, after mutation, a candidate gene does in fact come into consideration for the phenotype changes or differences in phenotype change.

In this connection, it is also possible, for example, for one of the following methods to be used:

-   (a) a method for investigating the activity of a gene in the     treatment and/or prevention of neurodegenerative diseases, including     those in which plaque-like deposits appear in the nervous system,     which method comprises expressing the mutated or unmutated gene in     an organism according to the invention and determining changes in     the phenotype which is associated with the aberrant or nonexistent     expression of the at least one gene connected with such diseases, as     has been exemplified above, or -   (b) a method for investigating the suitability of a gene for     modifying the effect of a pharmaceutical in the treatment and/or     prevention of neurodegenerative diseases, including those in which     plaque-like deposits appear in the nervous system, with the method     comprising,     -   exposing an organism according to the invention to the         pharmaceutical and determining the changes which occur, due to         the effect of the pharmaceutical, in the phenotype which is         associated with the aberrant or nonexistent expression of the at         least one gene connected to such diseases, as have been         exemplified above,     -   exposing at least one further specimen of the organism of the         type used in the preceding step, in which organism the gene to         be investigated is additionally expressed, to the         pharmaceutical, and comparing any changes which may possibly         occur in the phenotype, which is associated with the aberrant or         nonexistent expression of the at least one gene connected to         such diseases, as have been exemplified above, with the changes         in the phenotype which occur due to the effect of the         pharmaceutical on its own.

For the purpose of identifying pharmaceuticals and active substances, it is possible to use the newly identified genes to generate corresponding organisms which exhibit aberrant or nonexistent expression with regard to those newly identified genes and to investigate pharmaceutical candidates entirely in accordance with the above exemplifications. Everything which has previously been stated, for example with regard to organisms according to the invention, with regard to identifying or investigating pharmaceuticals, with regard to producing pharmaceuticals, etc., applies here in a corresponding manner.

Finally the invention also encompasses the use of the specific, C. elegans-derived Parkin gene for producing a gene therapeutic agent for preventing or treating neurodegenerative diseases, including those in which plaque-like deposits appear in the nervous system (amyloidoses), and, in particular, Parkinson's disease. Such gene therapeutic agents are used, in particular, when defects or mutations have been identified in a particular one of said genes in a patient or an individual who is not yet exhibiting any symptoms of such a disease and these defects or mutations are known to be connected with the onset, the course or the severity of such diseases and possibly also the transmission of such diseases to descendants.

In addition to this, other aspects of the invention relate to isolated nucleic acid molecules, in particular DNA molecules, but also RNA molecules, for example, which encode a C. elegans Parkin having the amino acid sequence given in FIG. 3, in particular those molecules which exhibit a nucleic acid sequence given in FIG. 3. The invention also encompasses isolated nucleic acid molecules whose nucleotide sequence exhibits at least 75%, in particular at least 80%, especially at least 85%, preferably at least 90%, particularly preferably at least 95%, and most preferably at least 98%, sequence similarity to the abovementioned nucleic acid molecules, in particular those which hybridize with the abovementioned nucleic acid molecules under stringent conditions. Preferably, such a hybridization takes place under low stringency conditions while, in another embodiment, it also takes place under high stringency conditions. Within the context of this description, low stringency conditions are understood as meaning a hybridization in 3×SSC at from room temperature to 65° C. and high stringency conditions are understood as meaning a hybridization in 0.1×SSC at 68° C. SSC is the abbreviation for a 0.15 M sodium chloride, 0.015 M trisodium citrate buffer.

The nucleic acid molecules according to the invention which exhibit nucleic acid sequence similarity with the nucleic acid sequence given in FIG. 3 include, in particular, all the allelic variants of the given nucleic acid sequence.

The invention also extends to the nucleic acid molecules which in each case have a nucleic acid sequence which is complementary to the above-exemplified nucleic acid sequences.

In the present connection, the term “isolated nucleic acid molecule” relates to nucleic acid molecules which are present in a form in which they are essentially purified from the main quantity of the nucleic acid molecules of a different nature derived from the parent cells and/or producer cells. However, preparations of isolated nucleic acid molecules according to the invention can perfectly well contain other constituents, such as salts, medium substances or residual constituents of the producer cells, such as various proteins.

The invention also extends to fragments of the above-exemplified nucleic acid molecules, in particular those which contain nucleic acid segments which encode amino acid sequence regions which are necessary for the function of the expression product, i.e. Parkin. In the latter case, the expression product of such a nucleic acid fragment can exhibit an efficacy/activity which is equivalent to the complete Parkin protein or else an efficacy/activity which is increased or decreased; in every case, preference is given to the expression product still being able, to some degree, to exert the effect(s) exerted by the complete Parkin protein. In addition, the invention also extends to those fragments which can be used, for example, as highly specific hybridization probes, PCR primers or sequencing primers, or else as “antisense” or “sense” nucleotides for the specific “homology-dependent gene silencing” of the Parkin gene. Depending on their purpose, such fragments will encompass at least 15 nucleotides, but frequently 25 or more nucleotides. For such purposes, a nucleic acid fragment according to the invention can also, if necessary, possess one or more labeling or detection molecule(s), for example a digoxigenin molecule or a biotin molecule.

The invention furthermore encompassses constructs, vectors, plasmids, cosmids, bacmids, YACs, BACs, viral genomes or phage genomes which contain one of the exemplified isolated nucleic acid molecules. In the present case, constructs are understood as being, inter alia:

-   -   constructs which contain the nucleic acid molecules or nucleic         acid molecule fragments according to the invention under control         of a promoter,     -   gene constructs which contain the nucleic acid molecules or         nucleic acid molecule fragments according to the invention fused         to genes or gene segments of another type,     -   constructs which, for example for a use as PCR primers, comprise         nucleic acid fragments according to the invention which have         been supplemented with additional nucleotide sequence segments         which provide suitable restriction sites for a cloning (of the         products resulting from the PCR amplification).

Another aspect relates to the polypeptides or proteins which are encoded by the exemplified nucleic acid molecules, in particular to a C. elegans Parkin having the amino acid sequence given in FIG. 3 and to polypeptides or proteins which are derived therefrom by the substitution, modification, deletion, insertion or addition of amino acids and which exhibit at least 75%, in particular at least 80%, especially at least 85%, preferably at least 90%, particularly preferably at least 95%, and most preferably at least 98%, sequence similarity with the abovementioned amino acid sequences. The invention also encompasses fragments of the polypeptides or proteins which are explicitly specified above and, in particular, those which contain amino acid sequence segments which are essential for the function of the C. elegans Parkin protein. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, these fragments are still able, to some degree, to exert the effect(s) exerted by the complete Parkin protein. The invention also encompasses fusion proteins which contain the polypeptides, proteins or protein fragments according to the invention fused to a protein of a different type or to a protein segment of a different type, for example a marker protein or indicator protein.

The invention also extends to transgenic organisms, in particular microorganisms, e.g. bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi and yeasts, algae, plants or animals, and also parts, e.g. cells, and propagation material, e.g. seeds, of such transgenic organisms, which comprise a recombinant nucleic acid sequence, where appropriate integrated into a chromosome or else extrachromosomally, which sequence contains a nucleic acid molecule according to the invention, as has just been exemplified, as a transgene.

Under a preferred aspect, the transgenic organisms will also express the polypeptide or protein, i.e. C. elegans Parkin or a polypeptide or protein derived therefrom, which is encoded by the abovementioned transgene.

Particularly interesting uses of the C. elegans Parkin gene, or of mutants thereof, have already been exemplified in earlier sections of this description.

BRIEF EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1: Diagram of the structure of the C. elegans Parkin gene together with exons and introns and the location of the deletions in the two KO mutants KO1 and KO2 (location: Parkin gene: 308-20272 KO1 deletion: 804-2550 and KO2 deletion: 382-1513).

FIG. 2: Plasmid pLG0126, which contains the C. elegans Parkin promoter and the C. elegans Parkin-GFP fusion construct (SEQ ID NO:3) (promoter: 2-654; Parkin gene: 655-2371; exon 1: 655-723; exon 2: 769-914; exon 3: 1005-1437; exon 4: 1484-1574; exon 5: 1854-2058; exon 6: 2112-2186; exon 7: 2233-2371; GFP: 2414-3133; 3′-UTR of unc-54: 3179-3923; and ampicillin resistance gene: 5249-4389).

FIG. 3: Amino acid sequence and cDNA nucleic acid sequence of the C. elegans Parkin coding region (SEQ ID NO:1 and 2); differences in the nucleic acid sequence as compared with the sequence available on the Internet (CAB04599.1, determination nonexperimental) are identified by capital letters; determination by RNA isolation, cDNA preparation and subsequent sequencing.

FIG. 4: (a) Pattern of expression of GFP under the control of the C. elegans Parkin promoter and (b) pattern of expression of the C. elegans Parkin-GFP fusion construct (see pLG0126 in FIG. 2) under the control of 653 bp of the C. elegans Parkin promoter in C. elegans (cf. experimental section 2.). Parkin-GFP is expressed in most neurons. FIG. 4 b shows neurons in the head region (A) and tail region (D) together with the appurtenant Nomarski micrographs (B and E). Parkin-GFP is also expressed in most muscles. (C) in FIG. 4 b shows muscle fibers in the middle of the worm.

FIG. 5: Plasmid pLG0082 (SEQ ID NO:4), which contains exon 3 of the C. elegans Parkin gene and was used for the RNAi experiments (cf. experimental section 12.).

FIG. 6: a) Pattern of loading onto the plate in the chemotaxis assay; b) results of the chemotaxis assay in the case of the C. elegans Parkin KO1 worms.

FIG. 7: Duration of the development of the C. elegans wilde-type worms and the Parkin KO1 worms.

FIG. 8: Micrograph of eggs which were laid by Parkin KO2 worms.

FIG. 9: Size of the descendants and number of the eggs which were laid by Parkin KO1 worms.

FIG. 10: Western blot of extracts from wild-type worms (N2) and worms which are expressing human α-synuclein A30P, which was integrated into the genome and under the control of the sel-12 promoter. The different fractions from the protein extraction are indicated below the blot: HOM, homogenate; RIPA, RIPA-soluble fraction; S1′, first washing step with 5% SDS; S1′″, third washing step with 5% SDS; UREA, urea-soluble fraction; FA, formic acid-soluble fraction. Black arrows denote the α-synuclein-specific bands.

FIG. 11: Analysis of transgenic worms which are expressing α-synuclein A30P as an extrachromosomal array under the control of the unc-119 promoter. The immunostaining (A) was carried out using the monoclonal antibody 15G7. (B) Expression of GFP under the control of the dat promoter. (C) DAPI staining; (D) Nomarski micrograph.

FIG. 12: Phenotype of transgenic worms which are expressing human α-synuclein A30P which was integrated into the genome and under the control of the sel-12 promoter. (A) Nomarski micrograph of a worm whose vulva is protruding from the body (B; C) transgenic worm with protruding vulva and disrupted egglaying, containing juveniles which have already hatched.

EXPERIMENTAL SECTION

1. Bioinformation

The C. elegans homolog of the human Parkin gene was found by using the BLAST program to search the C. elegans sequences which are made available by the National Center for Biotechnological Information. Nested PCR primer pairs for identifying deletions were designed using the Primer3 program from MIT in Cambridge and a window of 3.2-3.3 kb, and synthesized.

2. Pattern of Expression of Parkin in C. elegans

The expression of the Parkin gene in C. elegans was analyzed using GFP reporter genes (GFP=green fluorescent protein).

I. In a first step, the plasmid pBY1013, which contained 4085 bp of the Parkin promoter and the GFP gene, was constructed.

4085 bp from the 5′ region of the Parkin locus, amplified as a PCR product using the primers

(SEQ ID NO: 5) RB850 GGGCCGCGGCATGCGAATACAATGACGTAAGCGACGTGG, (SEQ ID NO: 6) RB851 CCCGTCGACTCATCAGACATGCTTCATGAGAGC were cloned, as an SphI/SalI PCR fragment, into the vector pPD95.75 (Dr. Andre Fire, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Baltimore, Md., USA).

A PCR product obtained from an amplification using the primers

(SEQ ID NO: 7) RB853 GGGCCGCGGTTCGAATTTGAAGCTCGCTGCGT (SEQ ID NO: 8) RB916 CGCCCGGGAGCTCGTCGACCTATTAAACCAATGGTCCCATT GACACTC

was cloned, as an NheI/SalI fragment, into the GFP vector pBY1023. C. elegans wild-type animals were transformed with the resulting plasmid pBY1013. Semistable transgenic lines were isolated. These exhibited GFP expression in a large number of neurons and muscles (see FIG. 4 a).

Particular emphasis is to be given to the expression in

-   -   the anal-sphincter and anal-depressor muscles for controlling         defacation,     -   the vulva and uterus muscles for controlling egglaying     -   in the entire pharynx (muscles and neurons),     -   tail neurons, in particular those with a long process in the         ventral nerve cord,     -   head neurons in the region outside of the pharynx.

II. Preparing the plasmid pLG0126 (contains 653 bp Parkin promoter+Parkin gene+GFP gene as a fusion construct)

3432 bp from the 5′ promoter region of the Parkin gene were excised from pBY1013 by means of inverse PCR and filled in once again using Klenow polymerase. The 1717 bp Parkin gene was then cloned into the resulting plasmid downstream of the Parkin promoter and upstream of the GFP (in the same reading frame as the Parkin gene). The resulting plasmid pLG0126 (FIG. 2) was transformed into C. elegans wild-type animals. Semistable transgenic lines were isolated. As in the case of plasmid pBY1013, these lines exhibited GFP expression in a large number of neurons (e.g. head, tail and pharynx) and muscles (e.g. pharynx, vulva and uterus) (see FIG. 4 b).

3. Preparing C. elegans Eggs

Approx. 8,000 young adult wild-type animals were rinsed with M9 buffer (22 mM KH₂PO₄, 42 mM Na₂HPO₄, 86 mM NaCl, 1 mM MgSO₄) from the agar plates and collected in 15 ml Falcon tubes until all the worms had been detached. After that, the worms were centrifuged for 5 min and the supernatant was aspirated off. The worm pellet was taken up in 10 ml of M9 buffer and centrifuged once again at 3000 rpm for 3 min. After the latter procedure had been repeated, 10 ml of bleach solution (1.44% NaClO, 0.25 M KOH) were added to the worm pellet. After shaking for 4 min, the egg preparation was centrifuged at 1,500 rpm for 30 s and the supernatant was aspirated off and the egg pellet taken up in 10 ml of M9 buffer. After that, the pellet was washed 5 times with in each case 10 ml of M9 buffer and in each case centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 1-2 min.

4. Preparing Mutagenized Nematode Worms

In order to prepare the mutagenized nematode worm strains, the egg pellet which resulted from the egg preparation was taken up in 10 ml of M9 buffer and shaken in an overhead shaker at 20° C. for 20 h. On the following day, the hatched L1 larvae (in each case 6,000 per plate) were sown on 8 plates (OP50 bacteria-inoculated agar plates of 9 cm diameter) and incubated at 15° C. for 60-70 h. After the animals had been rinsed off with M9 buffer and collected in Falcon tubes, they were washed in M9 buffer until the supernatant was no longer opacified by bacteria (centrifugations were in each case at 1,000 rpm for 3 min). Subsequently, 10,000-15,000 animals were transferred into a new Falcon tube and treated with trimethylpsoralen (30 μg/ml). The mixture was incubated for 15 min on the overhead shaker in the dark and, after the worms had settled after 3 min, they were added dropwise to a dry agar plate. After the worms had been allowed to dry for 2-5 min, they were irradiated for 1 min at 365 nm with a dose of 540 PW/cm². After that, the worms were rinsed off with M9 buffer and centrifuged down and the pellet was added to 3 new plates (9 cm in diameter and inoculated with OP50 bacteria). After the plates had been incubated at 20° C. for 24 h in the dark, an egg preparation was carried out (see above) and incubated overnight at 20° C. After that the synchronized and mutagenized F1/L1 animals were centrifuged down and taken up in S complete medium (200 mM NaCl, 50 mM KH₂PO₄, 13 mM cholesterol, 10 mM sodium citrate, 3 mM CaCl₂, 3 mM MgSO₄, 100 U of nystatin/l, 100-fold PSN antibiotic mix, trace elements, HB101 bacteria having an OD_(600 nm) of 2.0) (400 worms/ml). The worm suspension was sown in 17-33 microtiter plates at the rate of 50 μl per well and the plates were incubated at 20° C. for 5-6 days. After in each case one quarter (12.5 μl per well) of the worm suspension had been removed for preparing the genomic DNA and the well lysates, the worm plates were placed in storage boxes for long-term storage, sealed with parafilm and incubated at 15° C.

5. Preparing Pooled Genomic DNA

In each case one quarter of the worm suspension (12.5 μl per well) from all the 96 wells from an original plate were combined in a 15 ml Falcon tube and 1 ml of M9 buffer was added. The Falcon tubes were washed twice with in each case 10 ml of M9 buffer (centrifugation at 3,000 rpm for 3 min), after which 4 ml of washing buffer (20 mM tris buffer, pH 7.5, containing 100 mM NaCl and 50 mM EDTA) were added. After a centrifugation at 3,000 rpm for 3 min, all but 1 ml of the supernatant was aspirated off and the remaining supernatant, together with the pellet, was transferred to an Eppendorf tube using a Pasteur pipette. The mixture was centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 1 min in an Eppendorf centrifuge and all but 250 μl of supernatant was taken off. 350 μl of washing buffer were added to this remaining 250 μl and the whole was frozen at −80° C. After rethawing, 10 μl of 10% SDS, 2 μl of proteinase K (20 mg/ml) and 1 μl of β-mercaptoethanol were added, after which the whole was mixed by tipping and then digested at 65° C. for 1 h. Once again, 2.5 μl of proteinase K (20 mg/ml) were added and the mixture was incubated for 1 h. After that, 2.4 μl of RNAse A (10 mg/ml) were added, and the whole was mixed by tipping and then incubated at 37° C. for 15 min. After 250 μl of protein precipitation solution (Promega) had been added, each Eppendorf tube was vortexed for 10 s, placed on ice for 5 min and centrifuged (at 14,000 rpm for 10-15 min, if possible while being cooled). The supernatant, which contained the DNA, was carefully taken off and added to a new Eppendorf tube. 500 μl of isopropanol were added to these supernatants, after which mixing was carried out by tipping and the tubes were then placed on ice for 5 min and subsequently centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 10-15 min. The supernatant was taken off and discarded. 500 μl of 70% ethanol were added to the pellet, which contained the DNA, after which the tubes were mixed by tipping and centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 10 min. The supernatant was very carefully pipetted off. The remainder of the ethanol was evaporated off by placing the open Eppendorf tubes in a heating block at 37° C. The pellet which remained was taken up in 350 μl of 10 mM tris, 1 mM EDTA and left to stand at room temperature overnight. On the following day, the genomic DNA was placed in a heating block at 50° C. for 1 h and distributed on PCR plates.

6. Preparing Well Lysates

Well lysates were prepared from a quarter of the sown-out worm suspension (12.5 μl) by 12.5 μl of the worm suspension being taken up in 12.5 μl of lysis buffer (20 mM tris buffer, pH 8.2, containing 100 mM KCl, 5 mM MgCl₂, 0.9% NP-40, 0.9% Tween-20, 0.02% gelatin, 14.4 μg/ml of proteinase K), being digested at 65° C. for 6 h, then being incubated at 95° C. for 15 min in order to inactivate the protein kinase K, and then being frozen down at −80° C. after having been cooled briefly.

7. Using Nested PCR to Identify Deletions

Nested PCR was used to test genomic DNA plate pools and well lysates for deletions. In nested PCR, a PCR is first of all carried out using two external primers and a PCR is then carried out on the resulting product using two internal primers, in order to obtain higher specificity and better amplification. The genomic DNA was stamped directly, using a sample stamper (V & P Scientific, San Diego, USA), into a mixture (reaction volume of 25 μl) which contained Taq polymerase (Hoffmann-La Roche, 0.5 units/reaction), dNTP mixture (0.2 mM) and primers (0.4 μM). The reaction ran for 35 cycles at 92° C. for 20 sec, 56° C. for 1 min and 72° C. for variable times (15-120 s) in Perkin-Elmer machines of the 9700 type.

8. Analyzing the Deletions

PCR products were analyzed using agarose gels (1% agarose), and sequenced when identifying desired deletions.

9. Isolating the Mutants

The worms present in the well which was identified as containing worms having the deletion in the target gene, i.e. having shorter PCR products than in the case of the wild-type worms, were taken out of the liquid culture and added individually to agar plates. After having self-replicated successfully, the parent animals were analyzed for homozygous and heterozygous worms using various primers which lay within and outside the deletion. Positive strains, i.e. worm strains having deletions in the target gene in either one (heterozygous) or both (homozygous) alleles were outbred five times with wild-type worms in order to eliminate other potential mutations. Homozygous strains which were outbred four times were used for the subsequent experiments. The mutants depicted in FIG. 1, i.e. Parkin KO1 (strain designation XY1003) and Parkin KO2 (strain designation XY1046), were obtained in this connection.

10. Phenotyping the Parkin Knock-Out Mutants KO1 and KO2

a) Chemotaxiassay

Method:

Four plates composed of 1.6% agar, 5 mM KH₂PO₄, 1 mM CaCl₂ and 1 mM MgSO₄ were used per worm strain to be tested. The plates were divided up as shown in FIG. 6 a).

1 μl of NaN₃ (1M) was in each case applied at (+) and (−). Subsequently, 1 μl of the previously diluted attractant was applied at (+) while 1 μl of EtOH (100%) was applied at (−). The worms were cultured with E. coli on eight large agar plates, then washed off with H₂O and Tween, washed 1× at 1000 rpm and taken up in 1 ml of H₂O and Tween. 10 μl of the worm suspension (approx. 100 worms) were applied to each test plate. By holding the test plate vertically, the worms were distributed over a line which resulted in identical distances to the attractant and a negative control being achieved.

The attractants used were isoamyl alcohol (1:200), diacetyl (1:1000), pyrazine (10 mg/ml) and 2,4,5-trimethylthiazole (1:1000). All the substances were diluted in 100% EtOH. The assay was carried out at room temperature for 90 min. After that, chloroform was added to the lids of the test plates in order to immobilize the worms.

Evaluation:

The worms which were present within a radius of 1.5 cm around the attractant (A) or round the negative control (B) after the time had expired were counted. The chemotaxis index was calculated from these values as follows:

$\frac{A - B}{A + B}$ Results:

The result is shown in FIG. 6 b).

The Parkin KO1 worm strain did not react to the attractant diacetyl (odr).

The Parkin KO2 worm strain behaved in a similar manner (results not shown).

b) Period of Development

Method:

10 eggs of the worm strain to be tested were in each case tipped onto a small plate. The time which elapsed until the first eggs were once again lying on the plate was determined.

Results:

In the case of the wild-type, 100% of the worms had laid their first eggs once again after 72 hours. In the case of the Parkin KO1 worm strain, the first eggs had only been laid after more than 100 hours. The Parkin KO1 development period was therefore retarded, as shown in FIG. 7.

c) Analysis of Freshly Laid Eggs

Method:

Three adult worms were transferred to a fresh plate. After from 30 to 60 min, it was possible to use Nomarksi microscopy to observe the recently laid eggs. In the case of the wild-type worm strain, the eggs were laid during gastrulation (28 cells) or up to a cell stage consisting of 50 cells (beginning of morphogenesis). FIG. 8 shows two eggs which were laid by Parkin KO2 worms.

Results:

Some of the eggs laid by the Parkin KO2 worm strain are in a cell stage which is too far advanced. Parkin KO2 consequently suffers from a partial egglaying defect (egl. This defect was also observed in the case of the Parkin KO1 worm strain.

d) Number of Descendants

Method:

10 eggs were isolated individually per worm strain tested. As soon as the individuals developing from these eggs laid eggs once again, the worms were changed in a 24-hour rhythm until no more eggs were laid. The descendants were counted in the L1/L2 stage. In this way, it was possible to count all the descendants. Furthermore, it was possible to outline the chronological course of the egglaying in the same experiment.

Results:

The result is shown in FIG. 9.

e) Determining the Sinusoidal Curve for Testing Mobility

Method:

5 young adult worms were deposited on a fresh plate. The amplitude and sinusoidal length of the sinusoidal track left behind in the bacterial lawn were then measured by way of a visual display. 10 tracks were traced on film, which was then overlaid.

Results:

The sinusoidal amplitude in the case of the Parkin KO1 and KO2 worm strains corresponded approximately to the wild-type amplitude. However, the sinusoidal length was approx. 20% shorter than in the case of the wild-type worm strains. The mobility of the Parkin KO1 and KO2 worm strains was consequently disrupted (unc).

f) Defacation

Method:

The periods between the expulsion and between pBoc (intestinal contraction shortly before the expulsion) and the subsequent expulsion were measured. 10 animals were observed per worm strain.

Results:

Both the expulsion-expulsion cycle and the pBoc expulsion cycle were shorter in Parkin KO1 and Parkin KO2 than in the wild type.

11. Complementing the C. elegans Gene with the Homologous Human Gene

In order to carry out the detailed molecular characterization of the mutants, they were subjected to a function test. Tests were carried out to determine whether the phenotypes really were to be attributed to the deletion in the target gene, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, whether the C. elegans target gene and the human target gene were functionally conserved. For this reason, the deleted C. elegans target gene itself, on the one hand, and the homologous human gene, on the other hand, were in each case inserted into the C. elegans knock-out strains possessing the deletions in the target genes. Both genes were employed as cDNA constructs containing the C. elegans promoter (FIG. 2) in order to ensure a pattern of expression which corresponded to that of the target gene. An injection microscope (Zeiss) was used to introduce the constructs directly into the worm as plasmids (50 ng/μl). The defects in chemotaxis, development, egglaying, defacation and mobility were able to be reversed both by introducing the C. elegans Parkin and by introducing the human Parkin.

12. RNAi Experiment Using the C. elegans Parkin Gene

For the purpose of carrying out an RNAi feeding experiment for inactivating the Parkin gene, the plasmid pLG0082 (see FIG. 5) was first of all constructed: a 441 bp DNA fragment constituting a part of exon 3 of the Parkin gene was prepared by PCR amplification using the oligonucleotides 1-RNA1 and 1-RNA2. The choice of the oligonucleotides resulted in the introduction of an NcoI restriction cleavage site at the 5′ end and a PstI restriction cleavage site at the 3′ end. After the PCR fragment had been isolated, it was cut with the corresponding restriction enzymes and ligated into the vector pPD129.36 (Dr. Andrew Fire, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Baltimore, Md., USA), which had been digested with the same enzymes. In this way, the Parkin fragment was positioned between two T7 RNA polymerase promoters.

The E. coli strain HT115 (Dr. Lisa Timmons, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Baltimore, Md., USA) was transformed with the plasmid pLG0082 and ampicillin-resistant colonies were isolated. This strain carries a chromosomal copy of the gene for T7 RNA polymerase under the control of a lacZ promoter and therefore produces both sense RNA and antisense RNA corresponding to exon 3 of the Parkin gene following induction with 1 mM IPTG. Growth of the worms on these bacteria leads to the worms taking up the double-stranded Parkin RNA and to the Parkin gene being inactivated as a result.

Per experiment, five wild-type worms in the L3 stage of development were reared on these feed bacteria at 15° C. for about 2-3 days. Following a change to 20° C., their descendants were subsequently analyzed phenotypically.

1-RNA1: CAGACAAACCATGGTTCTCC (SEQ ID NO: 9) 1-RNA2: CTTACTCTGCAGCAGAATTGG (SEQ ID NO: 10)

Defects in egglaying, defacation and mobility were observed.

13. Preparing a C. elegans Mutant which Expresses Human α-Synuclein

Cloning the Constructs

In order to prepare the constructs which express α-synuclein under the control of the unc-119 promoter, human α-synuclein cDNA (Dr. Christian Haass, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich) and the cDNAs of the A53T and A30P mutants (Dr. Christian Haass, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich) were amplified by PCR using primers which contained cleavage sites for SalI. The amplified and cut DNA fragments were cloned into the SalI cleavage sites of the vector pPD49.24 (Dr. Andrew Fire, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Baltimore, Md., USA), into which the promoter of the C. elegans unc-119 gene had previously been introduced. The 5′ promoter region upstream of the unc-119 gene had been amplified by means of PCR and two primers from the cosmid M142. This gave rise to constructs pBY456 (unc-119::α-synuclein wt), pBY457 (unc-119::α-synuclein A53T) and pBY458 (unc-119::α-synuclein A30P).

In order to prepare the constructs which express α-synuclein under the control of the sel-12 promoter, human α-synuclein cDNA and the cDNAs of the A53T and A30P mutants were excised from the constructs pBY456, 35 pBY457 and pBY458, respectively, using the restriction enzymes MscI and NcoI and cloned into the MscI/NcoI incision sites of the vector pPD49.26 (Dr. Andrew Fire, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Baltimore, Md., USA), into which the promoter of the C. elegans sel-12 gene have previously been introduced. The 5′ promoter region upstream of the sel-12 gene was amplified by means of PCR and the two primers RB759 and RB110 (see below) from the cosmid C08A12. This gave rise to the constructs pBY1158 (sel-12::α-synuclein wt), pBY1159 (sel-12::α-synuclein A53T) and pBY1160 (sel-12::αsynuclein A30P).

(SEQ ID NO: 11) RB759: CCCGGCTGCAGCTCAATTATTCTAGTAAGC (SEQ ID NO: 12) RB110: GTCTCCATGGATCCGAATTCTGAAACGTTCAAATAAC

The unc-119 promoter gave rise to panneuronal expression whereas expression in the case of the sel-12 promoter took place neuronally and in some muscle cells.

Preparing Transgenic Animals

Transgenes were introduced into C. elegans by microinjecting them into the gonads (Mello et al., 1992). The above-described α-synuclein constructs were coinjected together with the marker plasmids pBY1153 (sel-12::EGFP) and pBY266 (dat::EGFP), respectively, and GFP-expressing descendants were selected.

Strains which possess the transgene stably integrated in the chromosome were obtained by X-irradation (5000 rad) of lines which harbored the transgenic, extrachromosomal arrays. The descendants of the X-irradiated animals were screened for 100% transmission of the transgenic marker. In order to eliminate any possible background mutations, the integrated lines were backcrossed with wild-type worms (N2).

PAGE and Immunoblotting

The proteins were extracted from C. elegans, and PAGE and Western blotting were carried out, as described by Okochi et al. (2000). The monoclonal antibody 15G7 (Connex, Martinsried) was used, diluted 1:4, for immunostaining of the Western blots. The secondary antibody employed was a peroxidase-conjugated goat ax rat antibody (Jackson) which was diluted 1:5000.

Immunostainings

The immunostainings were carried out in accordance with a standard protocol (Finny et al. 1990) using the monoclonal antibody 15G7 (Connex, Martinsried) in the undiluted state. The secondary antibody employed was a Texas red-coupled goat ox rat antibody diluted 1:2000.

α-Synuclein Aggregations in Urea Extracts In Vitro

In a Western blot (FIG. 10) using a monoclonal antibody directed against α-synuclein, yeast extracts of proteins from the integrated sel-12/α-synuclein A30P worm exhibit a high molecular weight band which is not visible in N2 worm extracts which have been treated in the same way.

α-Synuclein Aggregations in Neurons In Vivo

The immunostainings (FIG. 11) of unc-119/α-synuclein A30P using a monoclonal antibody directed against α-synuclein exhibit clear signals, both in the cell body and in axons, with pearl necklace-like staining frequently being seen in the latter. This points to the α-synuclein protein being transported to the presynapse and to the protein being accumulated in the axons.

Defects in Egglaying and In Vulva Formation

Worms in which the sel-12/α:-synuclein A30P construct is stably integrated into the genome exhibit deformation of the vulva (p-vul) and a defect in egglaying (egl) (FIG. 12).

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1. A genetically modified nematode belonging to the genus Caenorhabditis said nematode expressing human α-synuclein under the control of a Caenorhabditis neuronal promoter, wherein the human α-synuclein is aggregated in Caenorhabditis neurons after expression.
 2. The genetically modified nematode of claim 1 further comprising a phenotype associated with the expression of said α-synuclein gene, said phenotype selected from the group consisting of: a defect in egglaying; a defect in the formation of the vulva; a retarded development; and a decreased number of descendants. 